Other traces of mammals

A hazelnut split cleanly by a squirrel (CC image by Bob Embleton)

 You might like to read this page from BBC Wildlife Magazine to whet your appetite for 'wildlife feeding signs'. Unfortunately there are no illustrations.

Rob Strachan's 'Mammal Detective' book is said to be good for these, and is pretty cheap second-hand (I don't have a copy yet).

Nick Baker's 'RSPB Nature Tracker's Handbook' is along the same lines.

I'm sure you'll find other options too - that's at least an advantage of choosing mammals, because their wide appeal with the public makes publishers happy (books on moss aren't quite so lucrative, more's the pity).

Brian Ecott has some useful photos and information on his Hainault Forest site. But I've not found much on the internet that's comprehensive. So if you get really into this, there's a definite gap you could fill...

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Dissection of owl pellets for mammal bones

CC Owl pellet photo by Kristine Paulus

On reflection Ithis method doesn't tell you exactly where a mammal has been for the 'where' on your label - rather, the place where an owl coughed up its remains. But as an activity I rather enjoy it... it's a bit like unwrapping a present and you don't know what you're going to get (ok, that's probably a bit weird).

This download from the RSPB website gives you some tips about where to look for pellets, and how to dissect them. It's also got a flow chart to help you identify the bones.

Alternatively we have copies of this FSC 'Guide to British Owls and Owl Pellets 'which you can borrow.

We've also copies of D W Yalden's 'The Analysis of Owl Pellets' (there's a copy in the library too) which has a more detailed key.

Mammal jaws, skulls and teeth are most easily identified. You might find other bones but they're usually harder to pin down to species. Pellets might also contain parts of birds, feathers, beetle elytra, caterpillar jaws, fish and frog bones!

If you want to come in and use one of our dissecting microscopes, you are most welcome.

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Taxidermy and pelts of small mammals

Stoat and weasel pelts. CC image by Kurschner.

This might be an option you'd like to try. Obviously it's not for the squeamish, but it's probably slightly less gruesome than the skull-defleshing, brain-scrambling option of obtaining a skull.

I will admit, I have no experience of this technique. It's possible that one of my colleagues does (perhaps Dave B.). If you want to try it, some first-hand advice might be the best place to start.

Funnily enough, technical details of the process aren't that easy to come by these days (it's not something that's going to appeal to the producers of Springwatch, for example). But there's been a resurgence of interest in taxidermy recently. This tutorial on the Dark Artifacts blog seems really clear - it shows the skinning and stuffing of a rat. It makes it look rather do-able.

In the past, unpleasant chemicals like arsenic were used for preservation. Borax or salt has been used as an alternative (you do have to get rid of all the subcutaneous fat for it to be effective). The animal's body is removed from the skin through a longitudinal slit in the abdomen. The tail and legs are supported by wrapped lengths of wire. The body is padded with cotton wool, and then the slit in the abdomen is sewn shut, as is the mouth.

The pelts we used to have were quite flat, like the stoats and weasels above. The body was supported by a piece of cardboard, rather than being stuffed. The front legs are directed forward and the back legs backward.

I also found a very comprehensive booklet online called Collecting and Preparing Study Specimens of Vertebrates, by E. Raymond Hall.  Its style certainly reflects the fact it was written in America in 1962. But once you've got past that, you may find some useful information. Mr Hall rather confidently says on p.18 that "with experience, less than a minute should be required to skin a mouse."

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Preservation of whole mammal specimens

If you've got a whole, unsquashed dead creature (the sort you occasionally find mysteriously flaked out on a path), you might want to preserve it whole - rather than going through the rigmarole of divesting it of its skull. I'm talking about something small - a shrew or a mouse perhaps. We have an example of a pickled hedgehog in OJ17.

You would preserve your animal in ethanol, as taxonomic collections of fish would be made. I can provide you with some preservative (usually 70% ethanol, 10% glycerol) but you might want to find a suitable container. You wouldn't want the animal's insides to decay, so I can also offer you a syringe with which to inject the body with more preservative.

A pickled baby panda (CC image Momotarou2012)

Above is an example you probably won't have in your collection (did you know baby pandas have long tails and no markings?). It seems to be mounted on a piece of perspex to hold it straight, but you might not want to be quite so elaborate. As with fish specimens, you should really put the label in with the animal (more information in the link above).

Another technique you could try is freeze-drying. I've not got very much experience of this, but the freeze-dried shrew I made one year was apparently successful (perhaps that's a sentence that's never been written before). I'm led to understand that it's a popular method in America for people who want to preserve their deceased pets. And the advantage is that you can freeze the animal in a life-like pose. So if you want to try this, we can experiment.

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Preparation of mammal skulls

CC image of 'naturally cleaned' badger skull, by Spixey

If you're lucky, you'll find a skull that's white and clean, lying in the corner of a field and smelling of beautiful fresh air. A couple of years ago I happened upon a deer skeleton - some wretch had already pinched the skull but I was quite pleased to pocket a few vertebrae for their sculptural interest.

But otherwise, you've got a stinky and not entirely pleasant task on your hands.

I recommend Will's Skull Site for expert advice, so do start by reading that page.

Supposing you're starting with a disembodied head from some roadkill (we'll gloss over how you separated the head, and thank god that rabies isn't rife in the UK) - what are your options?

In an ideal world you'd have time to bury it, or leave it in a container that flies and beetles could get into.... somewhere well away from civilised society so you couldn't smell it... and then you'd come back later and the creatures would have done their work. You've probably not got time for this, and it won't help that you're trying to do it in the winter.

Will suggests removing as much flesh as possible. And scrambling the brains if they can't easily be removed. (I helped a student to do this once. I may not be volunteering again. You can see that this may not be a suitable collection choice for everyone).

Museums use dermestes (dermestid) beetles to help remove the rest. You can buy a small colony and as they tuck in to your specimen, the colony will slowly grow. They're quite easy to look after. But they don't like to get too cold. The problem is, there will be the most unholy stink, even with the tiniest skull. So it's not possible to keep them indoors (museums have special sealed containers and I'd guess that even then there are complaints) - you'd need some sort of outbuilding. I made myself unpopular by allowing a student to keep them in the undercroft at the university. I can't see this happening again.

An alternative you can boil up your skull - again, not a process that is going to make you popular with the neighbours - and you can use the enzymes in washing powders to try and remove the grease that will settle into the bone.

Another option is cold water maceration. It's slow - and you've guessed it, it stinks. You can read all about it, along with other very useful information, in this document by the University of Arizona and also on Jana Miller's site.

Having said all this, a collection of skulls does look very cool. And there's a lot of information online for those that are keen. But I for one still cannot shake the smell of those skulls of previous years out of my nose.

Dermestes beetles cleaning skulls for a commercial company. I can almost smell them from here. CC image by JimJones1971

I've recently found a blog with some very interesting insights into skull and skeleton form and function called Zygoma, which you'll probably enjoy reading (even if it generally refers to rather exotic specimens!).

What's In John's Freezer is another very interesting site (if you don't mind a bit of gore with your bones).

Young Jake has a page about cleaning bones too. His blog is full of useful advice on preparing skulls and identifying them.

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Identifying mammal droppings

Traces of Hedgehog (CC image by Rachtheh)

If looking out for animal tracks didn't make you feel like Ray Mears, surely developing expertise in identifying animals from their poo, will?

Not that I'm suggesting that all types of scat would be appropriate in your collection... no-one is going to thank you for a stinking scraped-up otter spraint (a photo would be best). But nice compact dry pellety examples - like rabbit or deer droppings - might be welcome.

I think you do need to be a bit cautious even then... it's not just any smell, there's going to be bacteria and possible parasites to consider. My colleagues may not thank me for this, but perhaps if you have samples you'd like to submit, you should bring them in and I can freeze and then freeze-dry them. I'd imagine that'd get rid of most things.

Naturally, whatever an animal has been eating is going to affect the appearance of its droppings. You might see seeds, fur or insect wings that haven't been digested, depending on species.  You'll probably have to accept that some are unidentifiable. But the details you record in your notebook about location and habitat might indicate some species are more likely culprits than others (squirrel droppings in Bristol aren't going to be from red squirrels, for example, and rabbits and hares leave theirs in different types of locations).

There's a slightly bizarre offering from the BBC Wildlife magazine here: "How many of these droppings can you spot?" 
but if you want something a bit more serious-looking and comprehensive, most books on mammals will give a few details. For example, we have copies of the Collins Field Guide to Mammals of Britain and Europe (McDonald and Barrett). The book I mentioned in regard to plaster casts also has details.

But one of the joys of the internet is that you can find a photo of practically anything. So confirmation in colour (in various degrees of reliability) is also not far away.

Update: Acer Ecology have made a page describing the finer points of difference between different bat poos. Isn't that nice. But do remember that meddling with bats incurs a stiff fine in this country. So no bat squeezing.


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Making plaster casts of mammal tracks

Tapir footprint (CC image by Christian Ostrosky)

This idea distinctly appeals to me, but I don't have any first hand experience to offer you yet.

I've been looking at 'Mammals of Britain: their tracks, trails and signs,' by M.J. Lawrence and R.W. Brown. Not only does it have pictures of individual footprints (quite easy to find on the internet), it has good illustrations of stretches of tracks - so you can see differences between front and rear paws, and see clues to the way the animal was moving at the time. Please do come and borrow the book (I've seen it cheaply secondhand too). If you've got the prints of something tiny, you can cast a length of them like this. Or you can just cast a single pawprint.

I like this chap's video very much - he's making a cast of a grizzly bear print near a glacier in Alaska, and he makes it look very simple. He surrounds the print with a dam of dirt to contain the plaster, but you can also use a strip of cardboard or a slice from a plastic bottle (as used by the British Badger Watching Man). I like the way he minimises mess by mixing the plaster in a plastic bag. And it's also instructive to see how he digs around the plaster to remove it without breaking it. You need to be patient and leave it to set for at least 15 minutes (the air temperature will make a difference, it could need longer).

His plaster looks quite thick - Lawrence and Brown suggest 'the consistency of evaporated milk' (if you even know what that is), or I've read 'thick cream'. But this is probably something you'll get to grips with as you gain experience.

You can allegedly buy plaster of paris at the chemist, or they would surely also have it in art shops (probably at a more expensive price). The Badger Watching Man mentions decorating filler... you could experiment.

The type of surface will also influence your success - Lawrence and Brown are very dubious about good prints from sand and silt - but then the chap with the grizzly bear print seemed to do very well on silt.

I also liked the grizzly bear chap's advice to scratch details into the back of the cast while it's setting. This wouldn't have to be all the what/where/when/who details - but a permanent connection to those details in your notebook would be good. You can always write on the cast afterwards when it's set.

The Mammal Society sell a kit that enables you to take inky footprints of animals that walk through a tunnel. That might be an alternative idea - it apparently works well in obtaining records of hedgehogs.

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Preparing fish specimens for a single tank

A single tank will be more work than jars, but it's a way you can display your specimens to better advantage. It'll be easier to compare identification characteristics if all the fish are lined up. For example, you'll be able to see the different number and position of the fins.

Dave B offered me some advice on how to set the fish into position when fixing them in formalin. I'm not a fan of formalin, but I think his method might be transferrable. I think it wouldn't hurt to try setting the fins into position while you're pickling them in ethanol - then they might be more inclined to stay in that position in your final display.

He suggests using a flat piece of cork or polystyrene (or similar plastic sheet), laying the fish on top, and using pins around the body to secure the fish in place. Entomology pins are good (I have some of these you can borrow) - they won't rust. You can angle the pins over the fish to stop it floating away (but be careful you don't distort the body too much or the grooves of the pins will be permanent).

Then use more pins to open and display the fins - you can make small holes through the fin rays and they won't show later.

You'd need to weigh down the cork / plastic sheet so the fish lay beneath the ethanol solution.

I wonder if you could also utilise some expanded plastic sheet to make a background inside the tank, to pin your fish against for the final display. Perhaps you could excavate a fish-shaped hollow to help support the specimens?

CC image by JD Wang

I can't seem to find any photos to illustrate this yet. So in the meantime I will have to leave you with another fish-art collaboration called 'Gyotaku' - a traditional Japanese method of printmaking which literally uses a fish (don't say you've learnt nothing today). This video by Heather Fortner shows how she pins out the fish in preparation for inking - much the same process as you might want to use yourself, so could be worth watching.

Preserving and presenting your fish specimens

Imagine the gasps of admiration if you handed in a collection that looked like this (fully labelled inside and taxonomically arranged, naturally). But unless you have a very healthy bank balance, all those perspex boxes are going to set you back a bit.

Students have been known to make one single tank to put all their specimens in. You have to remember though, that the larger the case, the heavier the amount of liquid inside. Watertightness has presented problems (and it's not water - it's flammable fish-flavoured ethanol) but it is possible. We've got an example you can look at - it's made from glass but you can also try using perspex sheets and plenty of silicon sealant. If you pick the single tank method, there's more information on this page.

A simpler solution is pre-bought jars (you'll appreciate that a matching set is preferable to random jam jars from the kitchen). You'll note that it's an advantage to have small specimens...

CC image by Frank Schulenburg

Here are some fully labelled fish in jars at the University of Michegan. You'll notice that the labels are inside - so the writing needs to be permanent and the paper needs to be sturdy. You could write them with pencil or find a suitable archival quality pen (there are some very fine-nibbed ones in the SU shop; they're marked 0.05 and 0.1). That would be fine (if your writing's illegible you might want to hire an assistant). Alternatively, you might be able to get printer ink that'll take the strain. However, there's some discussion here which isn't very encouraging - it would be a great shame to come back and find your hard work a black sludge in the bottom of the jars.

Museum collections (as mentioned in the link above) would attach the label physically to the specimen - usually by threading through the gill cover and out through the mouth with a piece of cotton or wire. You might not want to do that with a big label, but you could make a small one with a number on that matches the number on the larger label (perhaps made of dynotape or something similar). Or you could just go with the label in the jar. It's up to you.

Glenn Roadley's picture from the NatSCA blog

In the spirit of sharing enthusiasm for pickled fish (a niche interest), I hope Glenn Roadley wouldn't object to me showing you his angler fish photo as an example of the gillcover-mouth label technique. Glenn is a Natural Science Collections Assistant for museums in Sheffield. The lucky beggar.

Read on for information about identifying your specimens.

Identifying your fish

A mosaic from Pompeii (CC image by Masimo Finizio). Complete with nice pectoral fins and lateral line.

 As with so many of the other groups you could study, there's an FSC Aidgap guide for fish: Field key to the Freshwater Fishes and Lampreys of the British Isles by Alwyne Wheeler. We've got a couple of copies, or it's only £6 to buy.

An older option would be the Freshwater Biological Association's Key to the Freshwater Fishes of the British Isles by Peter S Maitland, of which we have a copy. 

I noticed there's also an online key by Alwyne Wheeler (also for freshwater fish) but it's not illustrated.

Public domain image of an oarfish (Regalecus glesne) - probably a bit big for your collection.

Mr Wheeler also wrote an Aidgap key to shore fishes of the British Isles - I don't think we have a copy in the field centre but there is one in the main library.

And you can also look at his Fishes of the British Isles and North-West Europe, which whilst being old has excellently clear diagrams (and a longish description of each species). Again, there are copies in the library.

There are keys in the Handbook of the Marine Fauna of North-West Europe by Hayward and Ryland, if you're collecting species from the sea or shore. We have a few copies of this book.

You'll want to check the names with the Natural History Museum's Dictionary of UK Species to make sure you've got the latest versions for your labels.

You might want to look at some identified specimens on FishBase but remember that you have to show you can identify using a key - it's not just about being able to match a fish to a photo, or "knowing" it's a roach because you're an experienced angler... you have to be able to explain why in your notebook.

(Return to the main fish page)

Ideas on where to look for snails

Where's your NOTEBOOK? You're not supposed to be enjoying yourself you know. Copyright free image by William Strode.

One of my own posts has a useful list of habitats that the keen snail-collector might think about checking, and I've also shared my snail-hunting expeditions around campus.

I think Lionel E Adams (1854-1945, pictured here with beard and older than when he wrote his book) still has some useful advice for budding snail-catchers in the 21st century. I recommend you take a look at his Collector's Manual of British Land and Freshwater Shells - especially at the introduction.  I find his enthusiasm infectious. (The names of snails have since changed so the species descriptions can be confusing, but they do contain the occasional amusing remark).

He suggests taking samples of dead leaves and moss to dry and sift through at home. He says "On land search all moist and shady spots, especially during and after rain, under logs, stones, among dead leaves and decaying vegetations, among nettles and healthy vegetation, on the bark of trees and at their roots among the moss, on old stone walls, and in damp cellars."

"No ponds or ditches should be passed without examination, however barren they may appear; and not only should the weeds be examined, but the mud should be sifted with a scoop in search of bivalves."
 "It may be remembered that peaty soils yield little or nothing..."
"Sand hills by the sea are very favourite habitats for [certain species]..."
"Calcareous districts are always fruitful, especially pure chalk, while granite and shale are not."  He also rejects "the desolate and repulsive millstone-grit districts" [!] as barren.


This page will give you encouragement about your success in collecting from autumn to spring. And given the British climate, it will not surprise you that Adams said "many of my most successful days have been spent in pouring rain."

The Conchological Society has lists of snaily habitats and the species you might find there (though at present, these are bare lists with no pictures).

Also you can read my general remarks on collecting - and bear in mind the principles in the Joint Committee for the Conservation of British Invertebrates' code of conduct. Get permission, take empty shells where possible, don't take more specimens than you need, and do as little damage to the habitat as you can. Only a few mollusc species are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. They're rare and so you're unlikely to come across them - but it doesn't hurt to be aware of which they are. The Conch Soc has a list and some advice about that too.

You'll probably find lots of empty shells, but make sure they are empty (or they will stink very badly if they turn out not to be). If you find it necessary, there's advice about dealing with despatching snails and removing their bodies here (sorry).

Thoughts on presenting your mollusc collection

Conchological collections (i.e. specifically of shells, rather than for studying the animals they belong to) were popular amongst 18th century natural historians. I saw two enormous and elaborate displays in the National Museum of Denmark recently - they were largely 'cabinets of curiosities' designed to impress one's friends and provoke conversation. You might not want to go as far as turning over a wing of your house just yet.

Public domain image of the C18th Leverian Museum.

My favourite Victorian mollusc collector suggests a series of flat boxes in a drawer. I've seen student collections like this and the shells are certainly well protected. It's also easy to stick labels to the boxes. It troubles me though that somebody examining the shells could muddle up the box lids (and consequently the identification) - perhaps the labels are best inside. You could leave the boxes unlidded, or use ones with clear plastic or glass lids. You might be able to fashion something from a deep picture frame, or buy a wooden display box made for jewellery or trinkets. You'll probably need to be a bit creative (or have deep pockets).

Another method would be to put the specimens into lidded glass or plastic tubes. The identification (on a piece of card) could be inserted inside the tube. It's traditional to use a wisp of cotton wool to cushion the specimen. I've got some tubes you might like. Then you'll need to think of something to put your tubes in (perhaps so they're arranged taxonomically).

It's probably best not to use a method that involves glueing your specimens down, because they won't be available for close examination and identification.

I recently read an article about The Curse of Cotton Wool to the staff at the University of Cambridge Museums, and it made me wonder whether there might be good snail-displaying solutions in using foam or tissue paper.

Another possibility could be to use small zip-lock plastic bags - perhaps not beautifully aesthetic, but certainly cheap and easily label-able. You could attach them to a board. Or use them to keep your shells safe in their boxes.

Naturally your collection will bear all the usual what, where, when and who information on each label - perhaps along with a note of the habitat where you found your snail (all of this will be easy to extract from your notebook, with a bit of luck).

CC image by Dysmachus

Being clumsy it worries me slightly to see these shells rattling around free-range - what if they got dropped on the floor and you had to identify them all over again? In this instance I think I'd be inclined to dab a tiny spot of white paint on each one and give them an identifying number to match one on their label. You may think this overly paranoid.

Visually, I think I prefer tubes - but those aren't going to be much use for a gigantic razorshell or a freshwater mussel. Perhaps you'll be inspired by pictures of the 100,000-strong collection at the Burke Museum in Seattle. There's a video too (insanely long, but you can flick through to see the range of displays).

Have a look at this page to see a marine mollusc collection that got a good mark,

and for more presentation inspiration the terrestrial snails collections here, 
and here
and here.

Guides for identifying marine gastropods and bivalves

The very variable Variegated Scallop - CC image by Hectonichus

The seaside being a popular place, there are lots of guides to choose from when you're starting out. For example, we have copies of the Oxford Photographic Guide to Sea and Shore Life of Britain and North-west Europe, and Hayward's Sea Shore of Britain and Europe (Collins Pocket Guide) (this one has drawings not photos). These are great because they give you a good overview of what's out there, and you can start to see which family is probably the right one for your specimen. Then you'll need to dive into the detail to pick out your exact species.

I've found this downloadable shell identification guide by Ian Wallace for the Liverpool Bay Marine Recording Partnership to be excellently produced. He's very good at pointing out the distinguishing features of the different species - especially for bivalves (bivalves can be a bit of a headache). I like it a lot. I can print one off for you in colour if you like. We're not in Liverpool of course, but there will be much overlap with species you might find more locally.

The Conchological Society of Great Britain has useful online habitat-specific species lists: There are species you might find on sandy and muddy shores and on rocky shores. The names link to pages giving detailed descriptions and distribution maps.

But even the great guides above are essentially pictures with descriptions, and you will remember that you've got to show your use of a key for your assessment. Plus, with many species you'll feel more confident about your identification (and learn a lot) by using a key - it's not always easy to just match your shell to a picture.

CC image of a bivalve by Muriel Gottrop

A revelation to me last year was getting hold of the classic 'British Bivalve Seashells' by Norman Tebble (Tebble's a great name is it not.. it sounds like a sort of bivalve to me?!). It's long out of print and I have one copy at the moment, but you're welcome to come and use it in the lab. You'll have to steel yourself to learn some technical language about the different parts of a shell. It will make your brain hurt (this proves the knowledge is going in). But Student H and I got stuck into it with some success, so I know I can help you if you want to give it a try. The National Museum of Wales has a website called 'Marine Bivalve Shells of the British Isles' (but the key wasn't working recently?) - I think it's pretty much based on Tebble's keys.

That website also has an interesting page on all the terminology for the parts of the bivalve shells and their shapes (unfortunately it's not a very well set out page as you have to scroll across it). It's very detailed and you may think it a bit advanced for your needs, but I think it's useful if you're working your way through a key like Tebble, and want to describe your shells in an appropriately malacologist-like way.

 Other key options (for shells other than bivalves) can be found in Hayward and Ryland's 'Handbook of the Marine Fauna of North-West Europe' (of which we have several copies).

There's another key by Crothers in the Field Studies Journal for 2003 but it does frequently mention live animals, and it's likely your shells will have been vacated, so it may be of limited use.

 It can be a bit frightening  using the keys, as you'll have to get to grips with some terminology, but if you've already got some idea of what family your mollusc is, it's not so bad. Anyway, we can look at them together if you like.

All the books seem to use different names, resulting in maximum confusion. But you can check the most up-to-date names using the Natural History Museum's Dictionary of UK Species. If you've got a bivalve, the National Museum of Wales' database of  'Marine Bivalve Shells of the British Isles' has a good search function that will give you the latest name if you put in a defunct one.

Identifying freshwater and brackish mollusc species

I've just found this dichotomous key by Brian Eversham. If you're looking for something to identify your freshwater snails that's accessible online, that might be a good place to start (the photos look rather good). There are lots of useful identification links at the end of it too.

Amongst the molluscs, you'll only find Gastropods on land, but our freshwater species include Bivalves as well (which Mr Eversham, above, possibly wisely excludes, as they are notoriously awkward). The two books below do include them though.

some pearl mussels - but don't get any ideas, it's illegal to even take them out of the water without a license as they're endangered and protected by law. CC image by MrKimm

Collins Photo Guide 'Lakes, Rivers, Streams and Ponds' by Fitter and Manuel has a mollusc section. There are dichotomous keys and you can usually reach a species. You can borrow this from OJ17, or I think there are some in the library.

Janus's book "The Young Specialist looks at Molluscs"  includes freshwater snails, and also has a special section on freshwater bivalves which explains the mysterious business of looking at the characteristics of the hinge and its teeth. This book has a bit of a silly title (and the species names need updating) but I do find the pictures and descriptions good, especially in tandem with other resources. It's out of print but usually pretty cheap second hand. You can have a look at my copy in the lab too.

The Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland has lists of species that may be found in particular habitats (for example, rivers, streams, canals, standing water and marshy areas). Unfortunately the species names don't link to any more information, but it may give you some inspiration about where to look. The Conchsoc does have an online key for identifying British and Irish freshwater and brackish-water snails (this doesn't include bivalves).

The names will be woefully out of date, but T.T. Macan's 'British Fresh- and Brackish-Water Gastropods' is an oft-recommended book. I've not tried it out so perhaps you can give me your opinion. It's published by the Freshwater Biological Association and we have a copy.

Check for up-to-date species names with the Natural History Museum's UK species database.

You might want to look at my suggestions for identifying terrestrial species also.

Identification guides for terrestrial molluscs

As I will rabbit on to you if you stay still, I went on a Snail Course last year run by mollusc guru June Chatfield. She recommended the above fold-out guide. Although it's "just pictures" I think it's an excellent way of getting an overview of all the shell shapes you'll encounter. You'd want to go to one of the books below to check your identification. But snail identification isn't supposed to be a trial, it's actually quite enjoyable really. This guide is a great first stop, and it's only £3 pounds including postage from the Conchological Society of GB + Ireland.

Another good place to start is the free downloadable key from Bristol Environmental Records Centre (BRERC). I can print you one off if you like. This is really useful because it only includes species that you'll find in this area. It's also got clear information about how to measure your shell and count its whorls. If you remember, showing that you can use a dichotomous key is part of your assessment, and if you write down your path through the booklet this will certainly do the job. I do have reservations about a couple of the couplets (I can show you which ones) - but if you check your identification with other sources (always a sensible thing) then this shouldn't be a problem.

 CC image by Didier Descouens

The main book I would recommend is Land Snails in the British Isles, by Cameron and Riley. At £9.00 it's quite cheap. It has a pictorial key which helps you recognise the families, and then a dichotomous key to reach the species. I've bought lots of copies so do come and borrow one.

An alternative book to try is The Young Specialist looks at Land and Freshwater Molluscs by Horst Janus. I know the title is fairly ridiculous (it's also been published as 'the illustrated guide to molluscs') but I really like it - there are drawings from various angles, and the descriptions can be helpfully subtley different from Cameron. I've got a copy you can try, and they're not very expensive second-hand. I rather like the introduction and its suggestions for collecting. The only problem is that the names are out of date (though I've scribbled newer ones all over my copy).

If you're bemused that you can't find anything on your species, it's possible it's changed name. If you look on the Natural History Museum's database you'll be able to check the latest version.

It can be nice to have a reliably identified photograph for reassuring you once you've got an identification via the key.  Naturally you could just google the Latin name, but not everyone is a Snail Expert, and you need to feel confident you're looking at the right thing. I'll keep looking for reliable UK resources, but at the moment I suggest MolluscIreland. There are also lots of snail photos on AnimalBase (this page shows Trochulus hispidus, the hairy snail).

Also interesting are the lists by habitat found at The Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland, but unfortunately they are bare lists without any details or photos of the species.

You can also read my suggestions for identifying freshwater species.

Dealing with snails in their shells

When I first started reading about snails, I discovered this book, "The Collector's Manual of British Land and Freshwater Shells" by Lionel Ernest Adams. It was written in 1896. It hasn't got up-to-date taxonomy or keys, but I like it very much because I warmed immediately to Mr Adams. He says in his introduction:

It may sound a bit batty but I really do hope that's something you'll take with you from this assignment - yes you'll have a new skill and a mark towards your degree, but maybe you'll also be developing a life-long interest in the nature around you, and find that that interest supports your mental wellbeing in the future.

But anyway. Lionel Adams has plenty of advice that still stands about searching for specimens, and I encourage you to read it. I think he would have been jealous of today's range of useful plastic pots. He has some very eccentric stories about leaving snails under his tongue and completely forgetting about them. He goes on:

"Any one who has tried it knows how difficult it is to get boiling water to clean the shells at night in an hotel or lodging-house, and even if this be forthcoming, how impossible it is to carry on operations in peace and quietness. To meet this difficulty I have a small spirit lamp with a folding tripod stand [...] There is, however, sometimes a difficulty in the disposal of the boiled corpses. My usual plan is to wait for a lull in the traffic and carefully empty them out of the window. This plan is not perfect, I must admit, for, in spite of all reasonable care, this operation has on several occasions given rise to much profanity in the street below."

Immersion in boiling water remains the advice for extracting snails in modern guides. Mr Adams recommends leaving larger specimens in for half a minute, but not leaving small species in for more than a few seconds, or the bodies snap and get stuck. He suggests using a bent piece of wire or pin to extract the fragments. This is all on pages 10 and 11.

I've also read about using microwaves. I'm sure Mr Adams would think this a brilliant development. But unless you've got a spare microwave I do not recommend it - I've no idea what will happen. It's difficult enough trying to share a kitchen with other students and this is not going to endear you to them. Regardless, here's the paper.  But don't say I told you to do it.

All this is clearly going to involve Death (and you may like to read Mark Telfer's page about beetles if you'd like some reasoned justification for this). But if you're not keen to despatch molluscs, you may still find enough empty specimens to make an excellent collection.

(Return to the main mollusc page)

Preserving and presenting your seaweeds

In the name of educational advancement, I hope the University of British Columbia Herbarium don't mind me showing you this beautiful example of a seaweed herbarium sheet to inspire you.

Larger sturdier specimens can be pressed immediately between newspaper in a botanical press - remember to lay them out in the arrangement you'll want for the final display. You might need to check and change the paper more often than for less soggy plants - you don't want your specimens to go mouldy. Some herbaria recommend cutting the biggest stipes or structures in half if you want to press them. (Peter Mcinnis suggests that they can be encouraged to press by being soaked in hot seawater - I guess, bring some home with you and heat it up!)

The specimen in the photo at the top will have been 'floated'. For this you'll need a tray of water. If your seaweed is rather delicate, it's likely to end up stuck to the paper you use now - so herbarium paper or artists' paper is good (we have some you can use). Put the paper in the tray (possibly with something as a firm layer behind it) and spread your specimen out on top, so the water helps you arrange the delicate structures with forceps or a paint brush. With really bushy specimens (eg. the calcareous red species) you might want to prune some areas so the branching patterns of a single layer are more easily seen. Grattan describes the process in detail (he does suggest you need a porcupine quill and an ivory paper knife, but you can probably manage without those, thank goodness).

Image by Peter Mcinnis (public domain)

Remove the paper carefully from the water, blot it as much as you can, and then transfer to it to your press, layering with newspaper.  Don't forget a label!  Tighten your stack of specimens really firmly and put it in a warm pace to dry. When you reopen the press to change the paper, I've read that you should allow the papers to cool first or the specimens may curl.

W H Grattan's seaweed press

I've written some advice about making and using your own press here.

And what I've written here about mounting specimens will also have a lot of relevance for your seaweed collection - some you might want to tie on, or you might use glue.

Update: I've found this rather comprehensive guide to preserving your seaweed here, at the Cryptogamic Botany Company. It's easy to read and has lots of photos.